Parental Presence: A Research on its Effect on Child Development Essay

Parents are considered a blessing to man from God as they are responsible for who one grows up to be. It is a common belief that one’s behavior and demeanor is a reflection of their parent. In recent times, there has been an increase in number of cases relating to juvenile delinquency among youths. The society is said to be degenerate and morality is just a theoretical principle. The society has gone wild and there is an increase in nearly all forms of vices known to man: Prostitution, rape, violence, divorces, under age drinking and risky sexual behavior are at all time high. see more:paragraph on environment for asl Could it be that at some point parents just failed to note the magnitude of their role thus the development of a society where parents are themselves guided by immorality and therefore children have nothing positive to emulate or learn from their parents? If this is the case then the society is bound in a vicious cycle of immorality. Understanding the role played by the parents in a child life is of importance in determining the role played by parents in the problems and challenges that the society is faced with. This research paper analyses existing literature to try and develop an understanding of the role played by parents in the development of a child to aid the development of a virtuous society. Research Findings One of the main reasons as to why parents have to ensure they are stable before having children is the obligations that come with parenting. Though physical maturity is of importance in child bearing, psychological readiness and financial stability have a bearing on the levels of efficiency that will be attained by a parent in rising up a child. Parenting is a continuous process that starts from conception until the development of a child into early adolescence (Omer, & London-Sapir, 2004). Children who come from troubled families are said to be at risk of having traumatic lives due to the effects of poor parenting (Lyster, 2007). Parenting though a continuous process plays a considerable role in shaping ones conception of what life is and what the society expects. Parents who neglect their duties in parenting have themselves to blame when their children develop into delinquents and social outcasts. The objectives and the role played by parents in the development of a child has a great bearing on the effect they will have on their children which affect the people they will grow up to be. One of the most important roles that a parents play in the development of a child is ensuring they are well taken care of. Humans like any other animal forms take care of their children to protect them from negativities that may be presented by the environment like harsh weather and disease. It is a parental obligation to ensure that a child is well breastfed and taken care of by providing clothing, ensuring immunization and housing (McGowan, 2007). Doctors and medical specialists have advocated for breastfeeding for what they state as its relevance to the physical and mental development of a child. Levels of IQ have a close correlation to breastfeeding and so is proneness of a child to diseases (Berman, & Corwin, 2007). Research further shows that diseases that arise from malnutrition affect one not only at the point of occurrence but some conditions like rickets have an effect that may psychologically traumatize a child as he develops and relate to his peers in later stages of childhood. Exposing a child to poor conditions in times of harsh weather and not immunizing them may affect not only the physical development of a child by making then prone to diseases but may also affect their natural development and therefore have an effect on the levels of interaction and creativity that a child will exhibit. Introducing children to their parents and ensuring a child interest with peers is another role that a parent plays in the development of a child (Pantley, 2005). Every parent’s dream is to ensure that their children get along with their peers and are well behaved among their peers. It is worth noting that the behavior one displays at childhood is the basis upon which other environmental factors will impact on to develop a personality or demeanor. Basically the attitude and approach to life that one adopts in their childhood affects who they will grow up to be. When children grow up, they are in constant company of their parents due to the need to develop closeness with the parents and due to the role played by the parents in ensuring a child develops necessary social skills (Okagaki, & Luster, 2006). The presence of parents in the initial stages of child development is important in the development of a child into a human person and determines their ability to relate feelings. Mothers who are absent from their children have themselves to blame when such children develop more close contacts to house helps and baby sitters which deny them of the joy of child upbringing (Boyd, 2003). Absent parents deny themselves of the chance to develop close contact with their children whom may develop into adolescence and childhood. The development of a strong initial bond between parents and their children is central to the development of an understanding between parents and their children. Communication implements a media which in the case of parent-child communication are define by the bond that brings them together. Parents who complain that their children have a listening problem have themselves to blame for either implementing wrong approaches or poor development of a bond between them and their children which affect the levels of understanding that can be attained in their communication. Wrong approaches may arise from poor or lack of knowledge on how to communicate with children or could be a manifestation of the poor understanding of either the parent or child on the other both of which may be developed by absentee parenting. Though the presence of the parents is of importance and is widely accepted as being central to the development of a child, there are differences in the approaches used in parenting which have a bearing on the effects they have on the child. Some specialists are of the view that parents should be present and show their love and affection to their children by considering their feelings, desire and respect for their child’s viewpoints. The same high nurturance approach advocate for parental pride in accomplishments made by a child and encouraging them in times of stress. High nurturance approaches are associated with increased presence of parents in a child’s life and many children under this approach grow up knowing they are loved by their parents (Smith, 2005). Studies in children have confirmed that there are a number of advantages that come with a high nurturance relationship that may affect their development even in their childhood. Alderian approaches in psychological analysis are based on the premise that individuals are affected by their experiences childhood which affect their perception of events. High nurturance approaches are associated with the development of a more positively assured child which increase the likelihood that the child will spend more time with her parents and therefore the transmission of values from the parents to the child. The key assumption is that there are no negative values being transmitted; this is not often the case for negative morals may be transmitted to children if they are closely attached (Hybels, Harney, & Harney, 2005). It’s often said that the high contact approaches are also characterized by increased strife by children so as to continuously please their parents and gain their affection. Some are however of the view that though this may be true it manifest itself negatively where there are other sibling competing for the same affection and is therefore central to sibling rivalry which may be negative. Critics of increased presence of a parent in the activities and lives of their children are of the view that parents who adopt this approach have a propensity for being lax in challenging their children to adopt standards of behaviour that measure up to what is expected by the society. The child becomes more inclined to gaining attention of their parents that there is little transmission of values expected of the child by the society. Supporters to authoritative parenting to so due to the levels of nurture it permits (Hildebrand, 2006). However, the army like approach to dealing with children is not friendly and is often associated with the development of poor relationship between parents and their children. Authoritative parenting characterized by minimal contact between parents and their children is generally aimed at ensuring children gain knowledge on socially accepted ways. Contact only exist when a child is being admonished or punished which effectively develops a negative image of a parent while ensuring positive transmission of social values (Long,& Hoghughi, 2004). Permissive parenting is on the other hand characterized by the philosophy of freeness where the children are free to explore her options. Parents are loved under this approach though they are rarely present and the child develops values depending on who they interact with. Experts are of the view that permissive parenting is central to development of brats and social delinquents and should never be allowed in the modern vicious society. Opinions An analysis of research in parenting leaves one wondering what is expected of parents. The effects and characteristics of the different levels of proximity that can be attained by the parent on a child have been analyzed by specialists of all calibers. The material role played by the parent in the development of a child is not in question, differential views however arise in the role played by the parent and his presence in the moral and social development of a child. All approaches have failures and pros and there are few researchers who develop a clear understanding of the levels of proximity that is good for the development of a child. Psychological and developmental theories are founded on the basis of the role played by the environment in molding ones perception and therefore its effect on an individual. The parent and the society are both part of the environment that a child has to interact with to be aware of what is expected of him by the society and parents. It should be noted that a parent is a member of the society and therefore what she expects of her child should be a depiction of what the society expects. Moreover, most people in the current generation were raised up without references to written parenting guides and rules. The art aspect has been forgotten in trying to quantify the levels of closeness and contact those parents and their children should exhibit. Personal perception irrespective of the levels of development is affected by individual traits. Some children just want to be close while others were born independent; this quantification puts no consideration on individual characteristics, the art aspect of parenting and what parents gain from continued parenting. Conclusion There is no doubt that the parent plays a considerable role in the material development of a child. Provision of basic needs and other requirement that are central to child development must be ensured by parents. Though there is no guide of how present or close a parent should be it has a bearing on the social development of a child. Sparing the rod is a definite child spoiling recipe and being a dictators may lead to a situation that any parent dreads; being subject to hate by the child. Creation of a balance that ensures love between a parent and a child and transmission of social values which must also put into consideration the nature of the environment and the child should define the levels of proximity. References Berman, J. , & Corwin, D. (2007). The A to Z Guide to Raising Happy, Confident Kids. Boston, MA: New World Library. Boyd, B. (2003). Parenting a Child with Asperger Syndrome: 200 Tips and Strategies. Boston, MA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Hildebrand, V. (2006). Parenting: Rewards & Responsibilities. New York, NY: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. Hybels, B. , Harney, S. , & Harney, K. (2005). Parenting: How to Raise Spiritually Healthy Kids. London: Zondervan. Long, N. , & Hoghughi, M. (2004). Handbook of Parenting: Theory and Research for Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2004 Lyster, M. E. (2007). Building a Parenting Agreement That Works: How to Put Your Kids First When Your Marriage Doesn’t Last. New York, NY: Nolo. McGowan, D. (2007). Parenting Beyond Belief: On Raising Ethical, Caring Kids Without Religion. New York, NY: AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. Okagaki, L. , & Luster, T. (2006). Parenting: An Ecological Perspective. San Diego, CA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated. Omer, H. , & London-Sapir, H. (2004). Nonviolent Resistance: A New Approach to Violent and Self-destructive Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Philosophy reasoning Essay

Philosophy is divided into many sub-fields. These include epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics. Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, such as the relationships between truth, belief, and theories of justification. Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning. Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, the relationship between mind and body, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes, and causation. Ethics, or â€Å"moral philosophy,† is concerned primarily with the question of the best way to  live, and secondarily, concerning the question of whether this question can be answered. Aesthetics deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values, perception, and matters of taste and sentiment. Definition: — The term philosophy itself comes from the Greek philosophia, which means love of wisdom. –The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. –The critical study of the basic principles and concepts of a particular branch of knowledge. Meaning: –The rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods. Significance: For us to avoid being fooled by those learned person, it removes or takes away doubts, it turns life to be simple and flexible in any circumstances†¦. The Importance of Philosophy Philosophic thought is an inescapable part of human existence. Almost everyone has been puzzled from time to time by such essentially philosophic questions as â€Å"What does life mean? † â€Å"Did I have any existence before I was born? † and â€Å"Is there life after death? † Most people also have some kind of philosophy in the sense of a personal outlook on life. Even a person who claims that considering philosophic questions is a waste of time  is expressing what is important, worthwhile, or valuable. A rejection of all philosophy is in itself philosophy. By studying philosophy, people can clarify what they believe, and they can be stimulated to think about ultimate questions. A person can study philosophers of the past to discover why they thought as they did and what value their thoughts may have in one’s own life. There are people who simply enjoy reading the great philosophers, especially those who were also great writers. Philosophy has had enormous influence on our everyday lives. The very language we speak uses classifications derived from philosophy. For example, the classifications of noun and verb involve the philosophic idea that there is a difference between things and actions. If we ask what the difference is, we are starting a philosophic inquiry. Every institution of society is based on philosophic ideas, whether that institution is the law, government, religion, the family, marriage, industry, business, or education. Philosophic differences have led to the overthrow of governments, drastic changes in laws, and the transformation of entire economic systems. Such changes have occurred because the people involved held certain beliefs about what is important, true, real, and  significant and about how life should be ordered. Systems of education follow a society’s philosophic ideas about what children should be taught and for what purposes. Democratic societies stress that people learn to think and make choices for themselves. Nondemocratic societies discourage such activities and want their citizens to surrender their own interests to those of the state. The values and skills taught by the educational system of a society thus reflect the society’s philosophic ideas of what is important. A philosophic system is an integrated view of existence. As a human being, you have no choice about the fact that you need a philosophy. Your only choice is whether you define your philosophy by a conscious, rational, disciplined process of thought and scrupulously logical deliberation — or let your subconscious accumulate a junk heap of unwarranted conclusions, false generalizations, undefined contradictions, undigested slogans, unidentified wishes, doubts and fears, thrown together by chance, but integrated by your subconscious into a kind of mongrel philosophy and fused into a single, solid weight: self-doubt, like a ball and chain in the place where your mind’s wings should have grown.

What effect does the pressure of standardized testing have on student Thesis Proposal - 1

What effect does the pressure of standardized testing have on student expectations and performance - Thesis Proposal Example oposed research will play a significant role in enabling educators to improve the process of standardized testing that may result in a positive impact on students’ performance rather than vice versa. Research Questions In order to collect data, the researcher has identified following questions that will enable the researcher in fulfilling abovementioned aims and objectives of the proposed research: You need to paste your questionnaire here LITERATURE REVIEW The statement â€Å"What effect does the pressure of standardized testing have on student expectations and performance?† has come under many studies, researches and theories since it is one of the most vital and significant subject of concern for the youth of twenty first century as they are living in the world of paramount competition. This topic has been under constant discussions and disputes with many controversial results amongst the academic researchers, professors and lecturers, and parents as everybody has a different perspective on the influence and performance on students of the standardized testing. However, the preliminary concept of standardized testing has emerged in order to assess and calculate the knowledge, understanding, and efficiency of students within the academic learning systems that comes under practice in the United States and many other countries. In addition, education systems even exercise the standardized testing with a purpose to establish, form and outline the program of study for the students according to their performance and skills level (Henningfeld, 2007).   Various educational institutions carry out numerous standardized tests as eligibility criteria of admission in the college or school all around the world includes â€Å"Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT), Graduate Management... The statement â€Å"What effect does the pressure of standardized testing have on student expectations and performance?† has come under many studies, researches and theories since it is one of the most vital and significant subject of concern for the youth of twenty first century as they are living in the world of paramount competition. This topic has been under constant discussions and disputes with many controversial results amongst the academic researchers, professors and lecturers, and parents as everybody has a different perspective on the influence and performance on students of the standardized testing. However, the preliminary concept of standardized testing has emerged in order to assess and calculate the knowledge, understanding, and efficiency of students within the academic learning systems that comes under practice in the United States and many other countries. In addition, education systems even exercise the standardized testing with a purpose to establish, form and outline the program of study for the students according to their performance and skills level (Henningfeld, 2007). Various educational institutions carry out numerous standardized tests as eligibility criteria of admission in the college or school all around the world includes â€Å"Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT), Graduate Management Aptitude Tests (GMAT), Law School Admission Testing (LSAT) and Medical College Admission Tests (MCAT) and numerous others† (Henningfeld, 2007).

Health organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health organizations - Essay Example Alcohol 101+ is an organization that that helps students to desist from taking alcohol in order to live healthy lives. Similarly, it has a dean’s office that displays videos for students to view the implications of uncontrolled drinking. This includes stories told by a Greek student and one student athlete through interactive videos. Additionally, the narration also includes Driving Under the Influence (DUI) and the proceeding repercussions. On that note, first years are the prime targets of helpful information to deter them from peer influence. This is whereby college rules and consequences are introduced in case there is a violation of the rules or regulations. Concerning Greeks, this is an illustration of the various perspectives of the social life that define the life of students in the school (World Health Organization, 2004). Therefore, this initiative begins with proposal from the Greek Leadership Council on three options meant for students. This include activities free of alcohol, blow-out party and responsible hosting. In other words, the section is meant to put more emphasis on values and missions of Greek campus life where discussion on responsible drinking is at the forefront. However, student athletes play other fundamental roles for Alcohol 101 Plus in terms of facing various challenges. For example, celebrity status, maintenance of a social life, time constraints and athletic performance among others.

Socical computing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Socical computing - Essay Example on management tool is social computing, which is the social aspect of interaction of people via computer systems and networks such as the internet, and encompasses a number of internet-based applications such as email, blogs, instant messaging, social book marking, social networking service, wikis, and polls (Dasgupta, 2010). Social computing has been identified to add value to the organization in a number of by enabling the management and development of business information assets (Tredinnick, 2006, pp. 228-234). Social computing tools such as wikis, blogs, and social networking sites offer a solution to information management related issues due to the inherent networking nature, which allows users to find, explore, and solve organizational problems. Moreover, social computing provides a platform for developing or improving on employee networks and permits participation (Ropes, 2010), which can lead to better employ performance, hence improved organizational performance. Furthermore , social computing can lead to more innovation, better staff abilities, and increase staff efficiency if competently employed as a powerful information management tool. This paper seeks to discuss and critically analyse the benefits, potential disadvantages and challenges of using social computing as an information management tool in the organization, and its future prospects. The advantages that this paper will focus on include enhanced customer relations, contributions to product development and innovation, increased productivity and efficiency, and general impact on employee information sharing and turnover levels. The disadvantages will be focusing on related security and privacy risks, loss of brand loyalty and fragmentation and cluttering of information. The critical analysis of social computing is, therefore, limited to the aspects of social computing that entail the various ways through which it influences information management in the organization. Such aspects include social

IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING - Essay Example Discussed below is the critical assessment of selected variables: 2.1. Commitment Relationship marketing stands on two foundation pillars; with one being commitment while the other is trust (Finne & Gronroos, 2009). Commitment in general as well as in relationship marketing is intention of parties sharing commitment to continue relationship. Level of commitment varies with motivation level to continue the relation that is influenced by many factors (Dwyer, Schurr, & Oh, 1987). It encourages marketers to invest for preserved long term relationships in contrast to short-term attractive alternatives and undertake high risks based on the confidence (commitment) support from partners (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). Importance and strength in relationship from commitment can be gauged from the fact that variable performance has been the metaphor from marriage literature (Das, 2009). Moreover, with maturity of consumer behaviour domain, the identification of brand loyalty has moved from increased re petitive and continuous buying to commitment to buy same brand on every purchase along with controlling the potential customer (Chegini, 2010). Commitment variations are critical to be differentiated such as effective  and  calculative commitment both being important contributor are not influenced by each other; hence, they must be addressed in distinction according to the need instead of relying on single attribute to support entire commitment paradigm (Lehtinen, 2011). 2.2. Trust Trust is among the two key variables that form the core of relationship marketing and leads to the success of relationship marketing in association with large number of other factors (Ratnasingam & Pavlou, 2003). Dwyer...Apart from trust and commitment that are given focal importance in relationship marketing, there are other factors such as communication, loyalty and satisfaction that play key role in relationship marketing. Moreover, each factor lends support to other factor finally leading to succe ss of relationship marketing. Therefore, based on the stated role of these factors relationship marketing literature asserted due importance; hence, guiding marketers to address in large to gain the successful relationship marketing (Østergaard & Fitchett, 2012). Variables of relationship marketing if employed in correct plan can lead business entitled to winning awards (Corsaro & Snehota, 2010). The notion provide accurate for defining the status of Singapore Airlines that has frequently managed to win the quality service awards. Singapore Airlines with consistency applied the relation marketing mechanism across board and developed bonding with customers as well as employees. Singapore Airlines won the trust, loyalty, commitment and satisfaction of customers as well as employees by oral and actions communicating bottom line of its business vision of delivering high-quality service.

Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis Assignment

Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis - Assignment Example A good investment strategy is one that earns the investor an expected return that is at least equal to or higher than what comparable investments would earn (Sharpe, 1991). The goal of any investment strategy is to maximize the value of the investment by getting the highest possible expected return for a given level of risk. Every investment involves risk, which is the possibility of losing money if the investment decision turns out to be a wrong one. According to normal human behavior, the higher the risk, the higher should be the expected return. Different investments have different levels of risk. For the UK charity, the safest investment, which also gives the lowest return, is to buy UK government bonds because the government always pays its debt obligations. Other investments, such as metals, a start-up business, or equities have higher levels of risk, and according to studies such as one by Barclays (2007), equities have consistently given higher returns compared to bonds or metals. Thus, investing in equities is a good first step in the  Ã‚  Ã‚  The risk level of investments in equities is measured by beta (Black, 1993), which shows how the val ue of the investment moves compared to the FTSE All Share Index, a composite number that represents the investment return of the UK equities market. The Index measures the daily values of all shares traded in the London Stock Exchange. If this index went up from 6,131.50 to 6,554.90 in the last 52 weeks, then the return on an investment, also called the market return, in all the shares included in the index would be 6.91% and a 10,000 investment 52 weeks ago would now be worth 10,691 excluding fees and commissions (Economist, 2007). A beta of 1.03 means that the value of the investment portfolio moves very close to the market but is slightly riskier than the market and therefore gives a slightly higher return compared to the market. Thus, if the market returned 6.91% in the last 52 weeks, the portfolio returned 1.3 x 6.91% = 7.12%. A 10,000 investment would be 10,712 or better than the market. However, higher risk also means a higher loss than the market if the Index dropped. The correlation coefficient measures how the prices of the stocks in the portfolio move against each other. The figure is always between +1 (perfect correlation) and -1 (negative correlation) or zero (independent correlation). Perfect correlation means all stocks go up or down together; negative correlation means that some stocks go down when others go down, and zero or independent correlation means that the stock prices move independently of each other.   

The Art of Film Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Art of Film Making - Essay Example To be specific, these film directors utilized historical contexts, themes/ narrative aspects, and stylistic/visual characteristics to create a virtual real world of heroism. Comparison /contrast: After going through the different elements of the art of filmmaking, it is evident that the elements like historical contexts, themes/ narrative aspects, and stylistic/visual characteristics of the films are examinable for the comparison/ contrast section. 1. Historical (political, cultural, philosophical) context of the films: The historical context of the film Spider-Man is related to the growth and development of Marvel Comics. To be specific, the director made use of the fictional character (Spiderman) from the Marvel Comics as the protagonist. Fowkes opined that â€Å"Upon becoming Spider-Man, Peter assumes a dual persona comprised of opposites: brain vs brawn, nerdy vs cool, weak vs strong, ordinary vs extraordinary† (130). One can see that fictional character of Spiderman deepl y influenced the cultural context of America. For instance, the popular culture in America, especially the children/youngsters is deeply influenced by the heroism of Spiderman. Besides, the climax scene in the film is philosophical because Spiderman’s doubt on his dual identity as a normal individual and as a superhero is revealed through his words. One can argue that comic/fictional characters are related to childhood fantasy. Still, the success of the film as a superhero film proves that heroism is acceptable to all. The scene in the film, in which Peter Parker is bitten by a spider (say, genetically engineered) connects the film with the history of genetic engineering. Besides, the superhero image of the protagonist and his involvement in daily life situations helped the viewers to accept heroism as normal. On the other side, the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider represents the development of video games and the adaptation of the same to the context of adventure thriller genre of films. The scenes in Egypt and Cambodia prove the film’s relation with history, especially archeology. One can easily identify that the film represent the philosophical quest of human beings to find out the secret of life. At the same time, the film is symbolic of human attempt to explore history by raiding tombs (say, the ancient pyramids). The first scene in the film, in which the heroine explores an ancient pyramid in Egypt, proves that the director provides ample importance to history and discovery of ancient relics. The film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon is symbolic of the growth and development of martial arts in China. The scene in which Li Mu Bai explains the history of his sword (say, the Green Destiny) proves the importance of martial arts in China. One can easily identify that the director provides ample importance to the heroism of the main characters (say, Li Mu Bai and Jade Fox). From a different angle of view, the film is symbolic of the development of Wuxi a genre films in Chinese context. The combat scenes in the film, especially between Li Mu Bai and Jade Fox, represent the historical importance of martial arts in China. For instance, the usage of poisoned needles during martial arts performance can be regarded as the portrayal of vengeance in human life. To be specific, the usage of poisoned needles during martial arts performance is against the ultimate aim of martial arts. In short, the films represent heroism in different historical contexts. Still, the philosophical content is same because these films represent the human search to find out the essence

The smartest guy in the room - the enron documentary Essay

The smartest guy in the room - the enron documentary - Essay Example Precisely, the company’s top management inflated the stock prices and amassed overwhelming capital investments from the shareholders while the company was running into bankruptcy. After the company collapsed, Enron’s shareholders were subjected to reduced per capita income, which further influenced a reduction in the country’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product). In order to prevent the occurrence of inflated stock prices that in turn influenced shareholders to invest in fraudulent companies, the government should issue strict regulations. The importance of this approach is to ensure that the business environment is informed about every company’s financial prospectus, statement of profits and losses, and its overall performances in the market (322). Eventually, every company will only present actual information to the market and the shareholders’ responses will in turn affect increase or decrease in the stocks’ prices. Considering such a regulation is vital towards financial development and contentedness of the investors (325). This will serve for the benefit of the country’s economic environment since corruption and fraudulent company practices will be diminished. Enron’s top management is depicted in the movie as a group driven by the greed to earn and resuscitate the company to a profitable position. Therefore, the company’s accounting department embarks on the use of the â€Å"mark-to-market† accounting tactic that aims at deceiving the investors’ population to acknowledge its performance through the highlighted bogus profits (Moeller 34). This accounting tactic enabled the company to forecast on its probable profits in a ten-year period and establish them on their current profit statement as though the Enron had made them. The tactic is fraudulent and should not be used in business organizations. Enron’s CEO Mr. Jeffrey Skilling and Kenneth Lay are depicted in

Why Nomadic People Developed Complex Civilization Essay

Why Nomadic People Developed Complex Civilization - Essay Example They would move to a place that they considered economically better than their current situation (Goldin et al 120). There were three categories of Nomadic people, hunters and gatherers, pastoral, and wandering Nomads. Hunters and gatherers nomads were communities moving from one location to another in search of wild meat, fruits, and vegetables. Pastoral nomads’ movement were influenced by the availability of water and pastures for their cattle, they were settling in places with good pasture for their animals, and when pastures and water were exhausted in these locations, they would move to another location with greener pasture and water. On account of their movement and interaction with various communities, modern day civilization was born that led to the development of different economic empires and rise of military structure. Another of factors made nomadic people settle, build and develop complex civilization. Firstly, the development of new methods agriculture as time passes by made nomads to settle in one place because there was a way to control drought through irrigating their land. Also, through improved irrigation system, pastoralist were able to store enough water for their animals and at the same time irrigate land reserved for pasture so that they do not run animal feeds.

Plot summary of the old man and the sea Essay Example for Free

Plot summary of the old man and the sea Essay The Sea is the story of an epic that makes a very great effort between an old, who has a lot of experience of a particular activity and he is the epitome of a modern human life, it was happened in a small fishing village near Havana,Cuba, The waters of the Gulf of Mexico, in the 1940,s in the twentieth century. The writers of modern age focused on man as well as psyche of man rather than society, so that Ernest Hemingway wants to write the old man and the sea ,which was the old(Santiago) suffered from alienation ,that alone all the time, it was one of the features of modern age. (Miller, 2002: 3). In 1930,s and during the second world war Ernest Hemingway was lived in Cuba, and because he was loved hunting and fishing and in the age of childhood he fished and hunted with his father, so that he began to write the old man and the sea in the last years of his life and published in the 1952 as a single issue of human life in modern age. In that small village, the villagers must work, which work it is fishing to get money so as to sustain in life, so that each members in the village go to sea with his boat or skiff in the early morning for fishing, and Santiago, old Cuban fisherman was one of them, but alone. As (Ernest Hemingway said). He had a shack which was a small building made of woods, in it a bed, a table, one chair, a picture in colour of Sacred heart of Jesus and another of Virgin of Cobre of his wife on the shelf in the corner under his shirt. He had a small boat and gone eighty-four days without took a fish. The boy named Manolin, that the old man took him when he was five years old and the boy loved him too much and loyalty for him, when the boy saw him without taking a fish in the first forty days while he took three fish in the first week. It made the boy, unlucky to see the old man each day went and came, went and came with his skiff empty and without fish, then the boy came to help him such as coiled lines or the pole, harpoon, brought coffee, sometimes with some food from Martin or Perico, and newspapers that talked about baseball, then it would been the discussion between Santiago and Manolin, that Santiago had a huge  admired for the Great DiMaggio, he was great in baseball player, and whose father was fisherman. The boy left him because his parents forced him to do, and go to another boat. The parents of the boy with the villagers called Santiago salau or unlucky and laughed at him, but Santiago said toward Manolin I knew you did not leave me because you doubted, then the boy said no it was true because my father made me left, so I must obey him, finally the boy left him and Santiago goes to sleep, in his sleep he dreamt lions that played on the white beach of Africa, this was a sense when he was a very young man. The next morning before sunrise Santiago went to Manolin’s house to wake Manolin so as to carry Santiago’s gear to his boat and drinking coffee, on the beach wished each other good luck. (Miller, 1988: 3-20). This time that started with the new day Santiago decided to go far out from others fisherman in the sea, he rowed steadily away from shore toward the deep waters of Gulf Stream. The first he heard the leaps of the flying fish then he saw flying fish pursued by dolphins a diving, circled seabird, he considered to be his friend, and he followed farther and farther out the seabird that was hunting for fish. One of the old man’s’ lines goes taut, and then the old man said out laud, would made a lovely piece of bait. Big fish pulled the boat every day farthest from shore until lost lights of his village. He can’t increase the tension on the line, because if it was too tauted it will be break and the fish will get away. It was a kind of struggle big fish (Marlin), and Santiago, that Marlin wants to get free and the old man wants to get his aim, goal, and desire that stands for life. Because he could not took big fish in to his boat and said a loud I wished I had the boy, but nothing, then he said to himself you have to work better, it was a kind of encourage himself, and he was optimistic all the time although he was alone, and can’t catch a fish, so as to helped himself he said toward Marlin I loved you and I respect you but I will killed you dead before sunset, after that a small tired bird named (Warble) came from north toward the old man’s boat, perched on the taut fishing line that linked the old man to the big fish, the old man told the bird to stayed and rested here to live and to sustain like other any man or birds, he said you were tired and loneliness as me. He didn’t mentioned the Hawks that waited for little bird, suddenly the Marlin surged, and the bird left him without any reaction, Santiago didn’t aware of the bird because his hand was bled, while marlin was quiet, the old man took the line with his back and ate the tun a that he caught day before, then turned to his imaginary mind to baseball, the great DiMaggio, and he wondered if DiMaggio would stayed with the marlin. The marlin woke and jumped out of water again and again and began to circle around the boat for hours and the line taken by Santiago’s hand that fought with the circling fish, after hat he pulled the fish on to it was side by the boat and plunged his harpoon in to it. (Miller; Asiaing. com, 10-37). Note; now he was happy, comfort and without any harm or pain because he got or completed his great aim, desire with the catching of big fish. Here the long strength struggle finished between The Old Man, and the Marlin with the fish lurched out of the water and dead, he pulled the boat toward the fish fastened the fish to the side of the boat. He thought how much money he could make from such a big fish, and he imagined that DiMaggio would be proud of him. The old man found himself wondered, luck, happy, and got his aim, goal, and he rowed toward his village with the great won in his life, but his happiness long less which an hour later amako shark arrived having smelled the marlin’s blood, the second fight and struggle began with sharks that wanted to eat the marlin’s flesh, he was able to killed a number of sharks with his knife and weapon, but he lost his knife and things in the process. He was failure after all and when he got back to the shore of his village there was nothing left but the head, the Skelton, and tail of the marlin. He beached his boat and went to his small building slept and dreamed the lions and turtles. The next morning, Manolin came to the old man’s shack with brought a coffee and despite the old man’s bad luck he decided to go fishing with him again. The entire fisherman had gathered around the Santiago’s boat and measured the Skelton at eighteen feet. Hemingway employed a number of images that link Santiago to Christ, the model of transcendence, who turned loss in to gain, defeat in to triumph, and even death in to new life, and as a representative character for everyone in the society. (Miller, 2002:26-31). Major Characters in the old man and the sea: *Just we had two major characters, 1-Santiago, (The Old Man). 2-Manolin, (The Boy). -Santiago; The old man of the novella’s title. He was a Cuban fisherman, suffered terribly throughout The Old man and The Sea, he had went eighty-four days without caught a fish, and became laughingstock of his village, but he was able to patient. (Miller, 2002: 5). -Manolin; was present only in the beginning and in the end of The Old Man and the Sea, but his presence was important, because Manolin’s love and loyalty for Santiago highlighted the Santiago’s valued as a person and as a fisherman. (Miller, 2005:6). Minor Characters in the old man and the sea: We had four minor characters in the old man and the sea. 1-Marlin, (Big fish). 2-Joe DiMaggio. 3-Martin. 4-Perico. *Marlin; It was a big fish, which was the greatest aim and goal of Santiago. The struggle more than three days between Santiago and Marlin, it was the trying by Santiago to catch Marlin, he had took marlin, but it was destroyed by sharks later. (Miller, 2002:5). *Joe DiMaggio; although he never appeared in the story. He was one of American most famous baseball players; Santiago worshiped him as a model of strengthen and young. (Miller, 1988: 55-56). Note; he always *Martin; Martin a cafe owner in Santiago’s village, didn’t appeared in the story. Manolin often went to martin for Santiago’s supper and others. (Miller, 1988:12). *Perico; perico was the owner of the bodega in the Santiago’s village. He didn’t appear in the novella the old man and the sea, but he served an important role in the fisherman’s life about the scored of the baseball’s newspaper. (Miller, 2002: 6).

3-D Magnetic Data Inversion with Physical Bound

3-D Magnetic Data Inversion with Physical Bound A new method Mohammad Rezaie1*, Sahar Moazam2 1 PhD in mineral exploration, Faculty of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran. 2 MSc in mineral exploration, Faculty of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran. Abstract Inversion of magnetic data is an important step in the interpretation of practical data. Smooth inversion is a common technique for inversion of magnetic data. Physical bound constraints can improve the solution of the magnetic inverse problem. However, how to introduce the bound constraint into the inversion procedure is important. Imposing bound constraints makes magnetic data inversion a non-linear inverse problem. In this study, a new algorithm for 3D inversion of magnetic data is developed which use an efficient penalization function for imposing bound constraints and Gauss Newton method to achieve the solution. An adaptive regularization method is used for choosing regularization parameter in this inversion approach. The inversion results of synthetic data show that the new method can produce models which adequately match with real location and shape of synthetic bodies. The test carried out on the field data from Mt. Milligan Cu-Au porphyry deposit shows that the new inversion approach could produce the magnetic susceptibility models consistent with the true structures. Keywords: Magnetic data, Inversion, physical bound, Gauss Newton, Regularization. 1. Introduction Magnetic surveys can provide useful information about the Earths interior. Magnetic measurements are usually used to delineate magnetic anomalous bodies and indicate their locations and depths. One of the most important topics in the quantitative interpretation of potential field data is the inversion of practical data (Rezaie et al. 2015). Inversion can be defined as a mathematical procedure that constructs a subsurface property (susceptibility) model using measured (magnetic) data by incorporating a priori information as available. The recovered models must predict the measured data adequately (Foks et al. 2014). 3D inversion of potential field data such as magnetic data is generally difficult (Jin et al. 2013). The main difficulty is the non-uniqueness of the solution in magnetic inverse problem. There are infinite equivalent source distributions that produce the same measured magnetic data set (Blakely 1996). The standard approach to overcome this issue is applying a priori infor mation. Several approaches have been introduced for incorporating priori information into the inversion process (Last and Kubik 1983; Barbosa and Silva 1994; Li and Oldenburg 1996, 1998, 2003; Pilkington 1997, 2008; Portniaguine and Zhdanov 1999; Farquharson 2008; Lelievre et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2015). Last and Kubik (1983) developed the compact inversion method which produce compact and structurally simple model. Guillen and Menichetti (1984) minimize the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the center of the body or along single axis passing through it. Barbosa and Silva (1994) generalize the moment of inertia functional to impose compactness along several axes. Li and Oldenburg (1996, 1998) developed a model objective function that produce smooth models. This method can locate anomaly sources accurately nevertheless, the values of the recovered model are smaller than the true values due to the smoothness effect of the objective function. Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999) developed a focusing inversion method based on compact inversion method for potential field data. Barbosa and Silva (2006) developed an interactive method for inverting magnetic data with interfering anomalies produced by multiple, complex, and closely separated geologic sources. Farquharson (2008) used L 1 measure of Li and Oldenburgs model objective function to recover dipping structures and models which have angled interfaces.   Lelievre et al. (2009) used Li and Oldenburgs (1996, 1998) model objective function and developed advanced constrained inversion by geological information. Zhang et al. (2015) improved Li and Oldenburgs method by applying Lagrangian multipliers in the model objective function to add geological constraints. In the 3D inversion of potential field data, particular bounds of the physical property may be known. This physical bound constraint can improve the solution and make it more feasible (Rezaie et al. 2017a). Consequently, how to introduce the bound constraint into the inversion procedure becomes an important issue. Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999, 2002) used a penalization algorithm to impose bound constraint in focusing inversion of potential field data. Li and Oldenburg (2003) chose a logarithmic barrier method incorporating bound constraints on the re covered smooth model. Zhang et al. (2015) imposed bound constraint in smooth inversion of potential field data via a method using Lagrangian multipliers. However, imposing bound constraint makes magnetic data inversion a non-linear inverse problem. Therefore, the logarithmic barrier and Lagrangian multipliers methods increase computation time. Another issue in solving non-linear inverse problem is choosing regularization parameter that can increase computation time (Farquharson and Oldenburg, 2004). In this study, we develop a new 3D magnetic data inversion method based on the Gauss- Newton (GN) algorithm that can incorporate bound constraints on the recovered model using penalization algorithm introduced by Portniaguine and Zhdanov (1999, 2002). Also, we will use an adaptive regularization method for regularization parameter selection in our magnetic data inversion method. Finally, the capabilities of the proposed method are illustrated by its application to the inversion of a synthetic data set and to the 3D inversion of magnetic data from the Mt. Milligan deposit at British Columbia, Canada. 2. Methodology 2.1. Forward model for 3D magnetic anomalies Susceptibility distribution in the sub-surface () produce magnetic field (T) at the surface. The purpose of forward modeling is to compute this magnetic field. The total component of the magnetic field is given by (Blakely 1995): (1) where (Henry.meter-1), R denotes the volume occupied by causative body. is distance and is magnetization vector which can be obtained as a vector sum: (2) where is earths magnetic field and is remanent magnetization. If we ignore remanent component, the magnetization will be in the direction of the earths field and can be obtained simply as: (3) To compute total component of the magnetic field in Eq. (1), it is required to discretize the subsurface under the survey area into rectangular prisms of known sizes and positions with constant susceptibilities. The formulation for computation of magnetic response for each rectangular prism was presented by Bhattacharyya (1964) and later simplified into a form that is more suitable for fast computer implementation (Rao and Babu 1991). We use the formulation developed by Rao and Babu (1991) to compute magnetic response resulting from individual prisms. If the observed magnetic anomalies are caused by M subsurface prisms, the magnetic field at the field point i is given by: (4) where N is the number of observation point. The forward modeling of magnetic data using Eq. (1) and Eq. (4) can be written as following matrix equation: (5) Here, G is forward operator matrix that maps the physical parameters space into the data space. denotes the vector of unknown model parameters and is data vector that is given by measurement data. There are some error in measurement data because of noise that is usually assumed to be uncorrelated and have Gaussian distribution (Rezaie et al. 2017b), So (6) where, is vector of observed data and is vector of data error. The main purpose of the magnetic inverse problem is to find a geologically plausible susceptibility model ()based on G and some measured data () at the noise level. 2.2. Inversion method In the typical minimum-structure inversion procedure, subsurface of the survey area is discretized into rectangular prisms (cells) of known sizes and positions with the values of the physical property (e.g. susceptibility) in the cells that are called the model parameters to be estimated in the inversion (Rezaie et al. 2015). The solution can be obtained by minimization of an objective function, which is a combination of a measure of misfit between observation and predicted data and a measure of complexity of the model subject to a physical bound constraint (Li and Oldenburg 1996): (7) where is a regularization parameter. L is lower susceptibility bound, U is the upper susceptibility bound and the misfit functional is defined as (8) Here, is data weighting matrix given by . Where,stands for the standard deviation of the noise in the ith datum, and is a stabilizing functional (stabilizer) which measure minimum norm of model structure (Li and Oldenburg 1996, 1998, 2003): (9) where are coefficients that affect the relative importance of derivative components in different directions. resembles first-order finite-difference matrices in x, y and z directions. We have to use an additional depth weighting matrix for compensating lack of the data sensitivity to the deeper model parameters (Zhdanov 2015): (10) Now, Eq. (9) can be reformulated to apply the depth weighting matrix to the objective function. (11) where is the cumulative first-order finite-difference matrix. Eq. (7) is reformulated using matrix notation to incorporate depth weighting easily: (12) where and . Eq. (12) is transformed into a space of weighted model parameters by replacing the variables and (Rezaie et al. 2017a): (13) The solution of Eq. (13) is obtained according to the regularization theory similar to the classical minimum norm optimization problem (Tikhonov et al. 1977). The solution of the magnetic inverse problem is obtained by minimizing this equation using the GN method. The upper (U) and lower (L) susceptibility bounds can be imposed during the inversion process to recover more feasible model. If an achieved susceptibility value falls outside the bounds, the value at that cell is projected back to the nearest upper or lower susceptibility bound (Portniaguine and Zhdanov 1999). To solve Eq. (13) with GN method, assume the obtained solution denoted by at the (n − 1)th iteration, and the predicted data corresponding to this model are .Then at the nth iteration, a model perturbation can be achieved by solving following equation so that the inverted model can be updated by (Aster et al. 2013): (14) where is the regularization parameter in nth iteration. Then the solution of the inverse problem in Eq. (7), is given by (15) In order to recover a more feasible model of the subsurface, upper (U) and lower (L) physical bounds of susceptibility are imposed in each iteration to force. If a given susceptibility value falls outside the bounds, the susceptibility value of that cell is projected back to the nearest physical bound value. The solution to Eq. (14) is also equivalent to the least-squares solution of (16) The least-squares solution of the Eq. (16) is obtained by a fast iterative method such as Lanczos Bidiagonalization (LB) (Pagie and Saunders 1982) at each GN iteration. therefore, the proposed algorithm would be suitable for large scale problems (Rezaie et al. 2017a,b). The GN iterations stop when the RMS misfit reaches an acceptable level or the model corrections become small enough (Pilkington 2008). We have used an adaptive method for choosing regularization parameter similar to which was proposed by Farquharson (2008) which is a fast and efficient algorithm for choosing regularization parameter. The regularization parameter is started at 100 () which is a relatively large value. If an inversion is performed with the regularization parameter fixed at this value, a model would be produced that had a small amount of structure and predicted data under fit the observations. At each iteration, the regularization parameter is damped to give a slow but steady progression of models with increasing structure and decreasing data misfits: (17) where    based on empirical experiments. 3. Synthetic test We apply our algorithm to a synthetic test to evaluate the reliability of the introduced method. The synthetic model consists of two different blocks with dimension 200 m 200 m 200 m which are embedded beneath the surface so that susceptibility of uniform background is zero. The Susceptibility of each block is 0.06 (SI). Perspective view of the true model is displayed in Fig. (1a). Fig. 1 perspective view of the synthetic model with 2 blocks (a). Magnetic anomaly produced by the synthetic model with 5 % Gaussian noise of the accurate datum magnitude. Depth to the top of the shallower block (block (1)) is 50 m and depth to the top of the deeper block (block (2)) is 100 m. The total-field anomaly data have been generated above the surface assuming an inducing field with inclination (I) of 75, declination (D) of 25 and a strength of 50000 nT. The data generated over a grid of 1000 m 1000 m with sample spacing of 25 m. There are 1600 data and 5 % Gaussian noise of the accurate datum magnitude has been added (Fig. 1b). The subsurface is divided into 40 40 20 = 32000 rectangular prisms with the same size of 25 m for inversion. The inverse problem has been solved using the proposed method that is described in the preceding section (). The solution obtained after 5 iterations with RMS of 0.05. Fig. 2 shows a plan section and a cross section through the recovered model from proposed inversion method. The result indicates acceptable smooth reconstruction of the synthetic multisource blocks at different depth levels below the surface. The recovered bodies in the model are smooth and adequately matched with real location of synthetic bodies. Fig. 2 Plan sections through the recovered susceptibility model obtained from the 3D inversion of magnetic data at depth= -125 m (a). A cross-sectional slice of the susceptibility model at Northing= 500 m (b). The borders indicate the true position of each body. 4. Inversion of field data Mt. Milligan is a Cu-Au porphyry deposit situated in central British Columbia. Geological information obtained from a major drilling program show the host rocks of the deposit are Mesozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks and contain intrusive monzonitic rocks that have accessory magnetite. There is an intensive hydrothermal alteration primarily in the region near the boundaries of the monzonite stock. The monzonite body is known as the MBX stock (Oldenburg et al. 1997). The copper and gold are concentrated in the potassic alteration zone, which is mainly around the contact of the monzonite intrusions (MBX) and may extend outward and into fractured volcanic rocks. However, magnetite is one of the strong indicators of the potassic alteration. In this region, magnetic data are acquired at 12.5 m spacing along lines in the east direction that spaced 50 m apart (Li and Oldenburg 1996). We use the data at 25 m spacing which yields 1920 data points. The reduced magnetic anomaly map is shown in Fig. (3). Fig. 3 The magnetic anomaly map of Mt. Milligan. The data are on 25 m 25 m grid. The direction of the inducing field is I= 75 and D= 25.73 with a strength of 58193 nT. It is assumed that each datum have an error whose standard deviation is equal to 5 percent of its magnitude (Li and Oldenburg 2003). To invert these data, the subsurface of the area is discretized into 48 40 18 = 34560 cells each of size 25 m. The positivity constraint was imposed which means lower (L) physical bounds of susceptibility are set to 0 SI. The solution is obtained after 112 iteration with RMS error of 0.05 which is about the predicted noise of the data. The recovered model is shown in Fig. (4) as one plan-section and one cross-section. The true edge of MBX stock and mineral assemblage which were derived from the drilling results overlaid on the cross-section. Fig. 4 The recovered susceptibility model shown in a plan-section at the depth of -80 m (a). A cross-section at the northing of 600 m overlaid by true boundary of monzonite body (MBX) with black line and mineral deposit with red shaded polygon (b). The results indicate that the anomalous body of magnetic susceptibility highs are mostly associated with the monzonite intrusion. There is a moderate anomalous body at the center of cross-section which is probably caused by magnetite content of potassic alteration. This area coincides with mineral deposit. Thus, the obtained solution is in a good agreement with true geologic boundaries of Mt. Milligan deposit. 5. Conclusions We have developed a new algorithm for inversion of magnetic data using Gauss Newton method. In each GN iteration LB method is used for solving least- square problem. Therefore, the proposed algorithm is efficient for large scale problems. We used an adaptive regularization method for choosing regularization parameter in each iteration which is a fast and efficient method for choosing regularization parameter. In the new algorithm, the physical bound constraint can be imposed during the inversion process via penalization function which does not need any transformation. Therefore, this method of imposing bound constraint is more efficient. The obtained results show the new developed 3D inversion method is able to produce a smooth solution which define the shape and extent of synthetic bodies adequately. Furthermore, the application of this inversion algorithm for a field magnetic data from Mt. Milligan deposit produced a model that is consistent with the available geological information. Compression methods such as wavelet compression which can compress the kernel matrix and using parallel programing that decrease the required memory and computation time will be subject of future works for large scale problems.

Finding A Good Place To Study English Language Essay

Finding A Good Place To Study English Language Essay Figuring out a time and place to do your homework and study is of the utmost importance. Once you have figured out when to do your homework, the next question is where to do it. A good study area should have a desk or table big enough to spread out books, notes, worksheets, etc. without them all being on top of each other. You do not want to make a mess, but you also do want to have ample room to work. Make sure you have plenty of light. Ideally, you will near a window with an overhead light and perhaps even a small reading lamp. Most important in choosing a study location is finding a place that is relatively free from distractions. That means no TV on in the room, no brothers or sisters running by, no phone conversations to listen in on, and no instant messenger or emails to keep you busy. Whether or not you listen to music while you study depends on your personal preference. You may choose to ignore any phone calls, or turn off your cell phone, and forget about the urge to go and get a snack every ten or fifteen minutes. Depending on your home, you may be able to find this area at the kitchen or dining room table, or in your bedroom. You may be able to set aside a study space in your basement or an office in you home. Some people find their homes too filled with distractions, and prefer to take their studies to the local library. Wherever you choose, it is best if you can study in that same place all the time. If you can study in this same location consistently, your mind will get used to this being a focused and important place. When you enter this area, you will know it is time to get down to business. Your pens and pencils, paper, erasers, stapler, calculator, and anything else you use often can be kept nearby. Also, you can keep them in a bin or bag which can be pulled out whenever you need them. This will avoid having to stop studying to collect supplies. Having this dedicated study spot will help you get down to business and focus more easily on getting your work complete. Keep Supplies in a Homework Kit It ¿Ã‚ ½s four o ¿Ã‚ ½clock ¿Ã‚ ½you know what that means ¿Ã‚ ½time to do homework. You scour the house looking for a pencil. Then you need a pencil sharpener. Ten minutes later you find one. Finally you sit down to start your homework. Where ¿Ã‚ ½s the calculator? Dad ¿Ã‚ ½s desk? Brother ¿Ã‚ ½s bedroom? Once found, you discover that it is low on batteries ¿Ã‚ ½there have to be some in the house ¿Ã‚ ½but where? If you find your typical study session unfolding like this, then here are a few suggestions to make you finish your homework with ease ¿Ã‚ ½ You can waste a lot of time looking for homework supplies and making sure they are ready to be used. OR, you can use a homework box or supply kit of some kind to keep it all together. Then, when it comes time to do homework, everything is in place for you. No running around, no scouring the house. Any kind of box will do. You can use a storage tote, an old shoebox, or even a drawer. The key is to keep everything you need in there, ready to go. Make sure the tote or box is placed conveniently in your study area. It should not move from the spot. Make sure siblings and family members know that these supplies are for homework, and not for other activities. Those supplies should stay there, and only be used for homework. You may want to label it so there is no confusion as to its purpose. Pencils and crayons should be sharp, calculators fully equipped with fresh batteries, markers with lids tightly attached. Here ¿Ã‚ ½s a tip, since your parents are always offering to help with your homework but it is up to you to do the work, suggest that they take responsibility for keeping the supply kit full and in working order. When it comes to studying, there are few people that want any more struggle or stress than is necessary. Keeping all materials and supplies handy and ready to go will make your studying not only go smoother, but possibly quicker. And who wouldn ¿Ã‚ ½t want to shorten the time they need for studying? Concentration is Key Learning to concentrate while studying and doing work is a skill that will be used for the rest of your life. The art of concentration is to eliminate any possible distractions and completely focus on the task at hand. Many students will read through material and discover that they have no idea what they have just read. Or, they will attend lectures and have difficulty paying attention to what is being said. Here are a few suggestions to help you stay focused and boost your grades ¿Ã‚ ½ When scheduling study times, try to stick to a consistent and efficient routine. Try to avoid studying one day late at night, and the next in the afternoon. Write in your planner or calendar when you will study so as not to have conflicts. Always study in a quiet environment. If you haven ¿Ã‚ ½t already, find a designated study spot free of distractions. If you live in a noisy house or dormitory, this may mean heading to a study room or even the library. When you need a study break, do something different from you have been doing, and in a different area. Get up and walk around in another room. Listen to music for a few minutes. Grab a snack. Try to take a break every hour for about 10 minutes. Every student struggles with day dreaming while studying ¿Ã‚ ½thinking about plans for the night or tomorrow ¿Ã‚ ½s basketball game. To avoid daydreaming, ask yourself questions about the material as you study it, which will keep your mind focused. If you have trouble focusing during classroom lectures, look over the notes of the previous lecture and read the course material pertaining to the lecture beforehand so you can anticipate the main ideas that the instructor will cover. Additionally, show outward interest during lectures. Have an attentive expression and posture. This will self-motivate internal interest. Also, resist distractions by sitting in front of the room away from disruptive occurrences and classmates and by focusing on the instructor through listening and note taking. Just a few minor adjustments in your studying habits will go a long way in improving grades and concentration. Skimming with Skill Think about how you find a name in a telephone book. You don ¿Ã‚ ½t read any more than necessary to find the name. Maybe you use your finger to guide your eyes. This type of reading is known as scanning. Skimming uses the same type of skill mechanically but a different skill mentally. In scanning, you know what you are looking for; in skimming, you don ¿Ã‚ ½t. Since you don ¿Ã‚ ½t know exactly what you are looking for while skimming, prepare yourself by reading the title, source, author, and any pictures; then question yourself,who, what, when, where is this likely to focus on? With a questioning mind direct your eyes down the column of print, or in a zigzag, if the lines are quite long. Look for exact names of people, places, things, ideas, numbers and words like therefore, whenever, until, because, and instead, to clue you to how and why. When you first start to learn to skim you may see only the words in bold type, italics, digits, or capitalized words. Soon you will note new or unusual vocabulary. As you become an efficient skimmer your span of perception will develop and your ability to make closure will increase. Skimming is a step you should always take before you read any article of factual or practical narrative. You will soon be able to detect most important facts, strange vocabulary, and words that are clues to important relationships. Its a good practice to skim everything in mass media after reading the title and first paragraph. You may get all the information you want. This keeps your skimming skills from deteriorating, or will give you the practice you need to develop necessary skills. Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final decision to read, discard, or study the material. Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use for rapid review. And dont overlook this! Reviewing frequently and rapidly is the best way to memorize (or simply remember information) from notes and long text assignments. Skimming is a very useful tool for studying, so learn it and use it! From Start to Finish Confused about what to write down in your notebook during class? Get stressed when preparing for tests and looking over your notes? Here are some suggestions to take you from the beginning of the studying process in the classroom, to the end, or the test itself. Read assignments before heading to class. This will build your background for the information that will be presented in class. It helps you be familiar with the vocabulary and concepts. This is especially helpful if you are unfamiliar with the subject matter. As you read, underline and highlight important information. If you don ¿Ã‚ ½t have time to read the entire assignment, at least look over introduction paragraphs, bolded words, and summaries. This will give you a good overview of the information. Although it seems obvious, you need to go to class and take notes. Most professors or teachers lecture during class periods, emphasizing points of importance. Head to class ready to be attentive and write during the entire class. Don ¿Ã‚ ½t stop taking notes until the lecturer is finishing. Pay particular attention to the end of the lecture, as professors will cram information into this part to finish up for the day. Use abbreviations; get details and main ideas to get complete notes. While the notes are still  ¿Ã‚ ½fresh ¿Ã‚ ½ in your mind, look over them and make any additions or corrections as soon as possible after class. Be sure to make note of any parts you didn ¿Ã‚ ½t understand or missed. Ask either the professor or a friend via email or before the next class period to get the missing information. Try to pass your first test in each class to boost self-confidence. Make up a list of study questions and definitions and practice reciting this information aloud, either to yourself or someone else. Don ¿Ã‚ ½t wait until the last minute study. Rather, study for short periods over several days. Of course, you will want to review the night before a test. Finally, test day arrives. Use these strategies during your exam to make all your hard work worthwhile. Read directions carefully before you begin. Take a few minutes to look over the test, then answer all the questions you know first. This will help you get sure points and builds confidence. Don ¿Ã‚ ½t leave any blanks; it is better to guess if you don ¿Ã‚ ½t know. Watch your time, and manage it accordingly. Don ¿Ã‚ ½t rush, but don ¿Ã‚ ½t go too slow. Take a few minutes at the end of class to look over your test to be sure you have answered all questions and that your answers make sense.

The Conclusion for Judges Essay example -- essays research papers

The Conclusion for Judges The book of Judges tells of an era in Israel in which the people of the land had no king. This book follows the incidents of twelve individuals whom were selected by God and shown favor to lead the Israelites out of the hands of the oppressors of their days. A judge is a military official known for his or her bravery in battles or incidents and nothing more than a mere warlord. This individual was given authority over decision-making and political squabbles among the people of Israel since there was no king. A judge would arise in the time of need and lead the tribe or tribes to victory over their enemies. God would show favor unto the judges and they would lead the people of Israel for their lifetime. The book of Judges displays an era of chaos in which the people of Israel did what was right in their opinion. This period is full of utter chaos in which the lack of leadership led to idolatry, rape, murder, the absence of unity among the tribes, and disorder. The last verse in Judges reads, â€Å"In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what right in their own eyes† (21:25), this conclusion is perfect for a book whose entire writings describe a time of such turmoil. The most prevalent form of worship throughout the book of Judges is idolatry. This is one of the sins of the covenant but the people of Israel for some reason cannot abandon this tradition among themselves. Idolatry is the worship of an idol, statue, or some other god or gods. The most popular among the people of Israel were Baal and Astartes. The people of Israel may have been led in a different path if there would have been some sort of leadership or power. Instead, the people of Israel followed a judge by the name of Gideon who created an ephod out of golden earrings for them to worship. There are several incidents throughout the book of Judges that exemplify the worship of idols, which resulted in the anger of God. The people of Israel take up gods from other towns and worship them, also. The presence of a king may have changed this due to the fact he would have been able to shed insight on a specific religion among the people. A disturbing fact of the book of Judges was the senseless raping of women throughout this wretched era. A Levite man’s concubine was raped in a town of which he should be able to trust the people. The men of the town initiall... ...bout. Some of the worst battles were fought as a source of revenge of one person being wronged. Entire towns are slaughtered for the deeds of one or two individuals. Husbands are betrayed to the death by wives for the mere price of eleven hundred pieces of silver, entire races of people are nearly wiped out because of the action of several ruthless men. This disorder itself would allow the last verse of Judges to be a great conclusion for the book. In conclusion, the verse, â€Å"In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes† (21:25), is an apt conclusion for a book written of a disorderly era. The era in which Judges is written about needed the presence of a king or some type of monarchy. The people of Israel took the law into their own hands, they handled problems to the best of their abilities but this was not sufficed. They needed some form of true leadership so that all of the tribes would be of one accord. This could not be accomplished with the thoughts of all of the tribes being vaguely different. Everyone doing what they felt was right only caused for more problems, which would only lead to working harder on trying to fix those.

Similar Attitudes Toward Machinery, Language, and Substance in Wordswor

Similar Attitudes Toward Machinery, Language, and Substance in Wordsworth, Pope and Dryden William Wordsworth’s â€Å"Preface to Lyrical Ballads† is from the Romantic Period of British literature, while Alexander Pope’s â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† and John Dryden’s â€Å"Mac Flecknoe† are both from the Neoclassical Period; â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† is from the Augustan Age, while â€Å"Mac Flecknoe† is from the Restoration (â€Å"Literary†). Despite these discrepancies in the time periods that their respective works were produced, however, Wordsworth, Pope, and Dryden express similar attitudes toward machinery, language, and substance. Their works evidence their agreement that machinery is a destructive force of serial production and repetition; good poetic language should exclude such repetition and be original and substantial, and poetic images can be used to create substance out of a lack of substance. First, the texts of Wordsworth, Pope, and Dryden evidence their agreement that machinery is a destructive force of serial production and repetition. In â€Å"Preface to Lyrical Ballads,† Wordsworth writes, â€Å"However exalted a notion we would wish to cherish of the character of a Poet, it is obvious, that, while he describes and imitates passions, his situation is altogether slavish and mechanical, compared with the freedom and power of real and substantial action and suffering† (361). In this statement, Wordsworth expresses his view that an association with anything â€Å"mechanical,† or â€Å"[o]perated or produced by a mechanism or machine,† is not exalted and is unbecoming to a poet; machinery does not help produce freedom and substance (â€Å"Mechanical†). In â€Å"The Rape of the Lock,† Pope similarly demonstrates that machinery causes a lack of freedom and ... ...ntic Period, the three works agree on three ideas. They agree that machinery is a destructive force of serial production and repetition; good poetic language should exclude such repetition and be original and substantial, and poetic images can be used to create substance out of a lack of substance. Interestingly, their views are quite relevant to a British literature student who has to use her laptop computer to produce an original, substantial piece of writing from four blank sheets of paper. Works Cited â€Å"Literary Periods of British and American Literature.† The Literary Explorer. Renà ©e Goodvin. 15 Nov. 2004 . â€Å"Mechanical.† The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 2000 Fourth ed. Bartleby.com. 15 Nov. 2004 . (The Longman Anthology of British Literature 2nd Edition, Volumes 1c and 2a).

Adverse Impacts of Landscape Fragmentation on Biodiversity :: Environmental Ecosystems Essays

Adverse Impacts of Landscape Fragmentation on Biodiversity Landscape fragmentation can impose devastating and irreversible consequences on the biodiversity of ecosystems. Because of the conflicting interests between ecology and human economic benefit, it has become increasingly important to find solutions for a harmonic balance. It is imperative for people to recognize the impacts of biodiversity loss and increased extinction of many species. These impacts must be understood in order to protect landscapes and the immense biodiversity they contain. Raising environmental consciousness through education and public cooperative efforts, as well as promoting resource conservation and changing consumptive patterns, are just a few ways that we can begin to protect biodiversity. What is landscape fragmentation? Landscape fragmentation can be characterized as a break up of a continuous landscape into more smaller, less-connected patches by roads, clearing for agriculture, commercial and residential development, and timber harvesting. Clear-cutting can break up mature, contiguous forest until the clear-cut area has regenerated to a point that it does not act as an ecological barrier to interior species or species that rely on continuous, mature forests. Much of the work that has sought to measure landscape pattern and habitat fragmentation comes out of the disciplines of conservation biology and landscape ecology (Theobald 1998). These disciplines are founded on the premise that landscape patterns strongly influence and are influenced by ecological processes (Forman and Godron 1986). How does landscape fragmentation affect species diversity? Landscape fragmentation contributes to loss of migratory corridors, loss of connectivity and natural communities, which all lead to a loss of biodiversity for a region. Conservation of biodiversity must include all levels of diversity: genetic, species, community, and landscape (CNHP 1995). Each complex level is dependent upon and linked to the other levels. In addition, humans are linked to all levels of this hierarchy. A healthy natural and human environment go hand in hand (CNHP 1995). An important step in conservation planning, in order to guarantee both a healthy natural environment as well as a healthy human environment, is recognizing the most endangered elements. Biodiversity is influenced by landscape fragmentation at various scales of space and time. The extinction of ecosystem types and component species may cause an increased patchiness of the landscape, resulting in lower population sizes and decreased connectivity. As a result, inhabitants may experience decreased dispersal abilities and lowered gene flows between populations.

Explain the Principal Psychological Perspectives Essay

The behaviourist perspective is an idea that we can understand any type of behaviour by looking at what the person has learner. This includes personality traits such as shyness, confidence, optimism or pessimism. Behaviourist psychologists explain all human behaviour as resulting from experience. Two key psychologists are Pavlov and Skinner, although these two theorists believed that different processes were involved, they both explained all types of behaviour as being the result of learning. This is everything from shyness to aggression and happiness to depression. Classical conditioning was a theory developed by a Russian psychologist called Ivan Pavlov. He was working with dogs to investigate their digestive system. The dogs were attached to a harness and Pavlov attached monitors to their stomachs and mouths so he could measure the rate of salivation. He noticed that the dog began to salivate when someone entered the room with a bowl of food, but before the dog had eaten the food. Since salivation is a reflex response, this seemed unusual. Pavlov decided that the dog was salivating because it had learned to associate the person with the food. He then developed a theory. Food automatically led to the salivation response, since this response had not been learned, he called this an unconditioned response, which is a response that regularly occurs when an unconditioned stimulus is presented. As food automatically leads to this response, he called this an unconditioned stimulus, which is a stimulus that regularly and consistently leads to an automatic response. Pavlov then presented food at the same time as ringing a bell (neutral stimulus), to see if the dog would learn to associate the bell with the food. After several trials, the dog learned that the bell was associated with food and eventually it began to salivate only when the bell was rung and no food was presented. It therefore had learned the conditioned response of salivation to the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned response is a new, learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that mimics the response to the unconditioned stimulus. The Conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that, when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned response, just as the unconditioned response used to. Operant conditioning was a theory created by an American psychologist called Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Skinner worked mostly with rats and pigeons to discover key principles of learning new behaviours. He used a device called a Skinner box, the box contains a lever which, when pressed, releases a food pellet into the box which therefore should reinforce lever-pressing behaviour. When the rat is first placed in the box it will run around and sniff the various items and at some point it will press the lever, releasing the food pellet. When the rat has performed this action several times, it will learn that this behaviour is automatically followed by the release of a food pellet. Because the pellet is reinforcing, this consequence increases the probability of the behaviour being repeated. The two types of reinforcement are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is when the consequence following a particular behaviour is experienced as desirable. Negative reinforcement is when behaviour results in a consequence that removes something unpleasant. Skinner tested the negative reinforcement by running a very low electrical current on the floor of the skinner box. The current would be de-activated if the rat pressed the lever. The lever pressing was therefore negatively reinforcing. Social learning theory: There are many influences on our behaviour, this comes from peers, siblings, parents, television, sports and celebrities. According to the social learning theory, role models are very important. The likelihood of imitating behaviours is strongly influenced by the way we perceive the person performing the behaviour. If we observe the behaviour of someone we admire, we are more likely to imitate their behaviour. For example, if someone such as Bradley wiggins recommends that we should wear a cycle helmet, we are much more likely to imitate this behaviour as we are closer to being like this admired model. But, if someone we look down on recommends that we do the same, we are much less likely to do so as we do not want to be perceived as the person we look down on. Certain attributes of a person determine whether the behaviour is more likely to be imitated, these attributes include; gender, similarity to ourselves, status, prestige, competence and fame. Our behaviour is also influenced by the presence of other, no matter how much we believe ourselves to be individuals. Culture is the shared values, norms, language, customs and practices of a group. It also refers to different sub-groups within society. It is important to understand how culture affects our behaviour in order to gain a full understanding of the people we encounter and those we work with. Watson found that the average amount of eye contact made varied between countries, with high degrees of eye contact being seen as insolent by some Africans and East Asians, whereas among Indians and Latin-Americans this was seen as desirable. The self-fulfilling prophecy is a concept in psychology that has an impact on the way we behave towards others and expect them to behave towards us. If we believe ourselves to be worthwhile, pleasant and likeable then we will almost certainly be polite and cheerful towards those we meet, therefore it will create a favourable impression. In response, those who come into contact with us perceive us favourably and behave in a positive way towards us, this results in our positive self-beliefs being confirmed. On the other hand, if we are angry and feel the whole world is against us, then we are likely to behave in a more aggressive way and therefore this is how we will be responded to, which will confirm our views of ourselves and the world. The Psychodynamic approach: This approach was created by an Austrian psychologist called Sigmund Freud. Freud was one of the earliest thinkers to bring to public attention the idea that we are not always aware of all aspects of ourselves. He said that we’re are aware of things in our conscious mind, but things like our memories, feelings and past experiences are locked up in a part of our mind called the unconscious. We can’t access the unconscious part of our minds but they leak out in dreams or through a slip of the tongue. Part of the unconscious that we can easily access he called the pre-conscious. This contains information that isn’t in the conscious part of our minds but can be easily retrieved. Freud believed that early experiences determine behaviours later in life. He developed the psychosexual theory, he believed we all go through several stages of psychosexual development. At each stage, the individuals libido is focused on a part of the body that is particularly relevant at that stage. If the needs are met for the developing child at each stage, it moves on to the next development stage. If there is a struggle or conflict, the individual becomes stuck at this stage. This results in certain personality traits, which are carried through into adulthood and which can explain behaviour in later life. The earliest stage is the ‘oral stage’, the focus here is on the mouth and consists of behaviours such as sucking, biting and licking. Freud believed that, either, the infant was weaned too early and would feel under-gratified and unsatisfied and would develop into a pessimistic sarcastic person. On the other hand, the infant was weaned too late and would develop a gullible personality and naively trust in others. This stage lasts from birth to approximately 18 months. If the infant passes through the oral stage without becoming stuck, the next stage is the ‘anal stage’, which lasts from approximately one to three years. The libido here is focused on aspects to do with potty training. If there is a battle with parents about potty training, with the child feeling forced to use the potty before they are ready. The child may rebel by retaining their faeces, therefore holding on to the control and withholding satisfaction from the parents. This is called ‘anally retentive’ and is associated with later personality traits such as obstinacy, miserliness and obsessive traits. The alternative is that the child is not given enough boundaries over potty training so they take pleasure in excretion and become a messy, creative, disorganised person. During the ages of four to five, a child passes through the ‘phallic stage’. Fixation at this stage is associated with anxiety and guilty feelings about sex and fear about castration for males. If this stage is not resolved, Freud suggests that a boy may become homosexual and a girl may become a lesbian. Between the ages of five to seven and the onset of puberty, a child enters the ‘latency stage’, it is not a developmental stage but is when the focus is on social pursuits such as sport, academic excellence and the development of friendships. The final stage is the ‘gential stage’, this begins at puberty. Freud believed that the less fixated a child has become during the earlier stages, the more easily this stage will be negotiated, resulting in the ability to form strong heterosexual relationships, with the ability to be warm and loving as well as receive love in a mature way. Another important feature of early experiences is the development of ego defence mechanisms. An ego is the part of the mind whose function it is to moderate the demands of the id and prevent the superego being too harsh. It operates on the reality principle. The use of a defence mechanism allows us to block out events that threaten to overwhelm us. Examples of ego defences are things such as repression which allows a person to forget an event such as a traumatic event. Regression is reverting to an earlier stage of development such as wetting the bed when gaining a new sibling despite never doing so before. Denial is pushing an event or emotion out of the conscious mind, such as denying that a loved one has died. Displacement is redirecting desires onto a safe object, such as taking your anger out on someone you love because of someone else giving you a hard time. Freud suggested that the mind is divided into three dynamic parts which he called the ‘psyche’. The ‘id’ is the part of the mind which is completely unconscious and exists at birth. It is focused on getting what is wants and has aggressive, sexual and loving instincts, such as ‘i want’. The ‘superego’ is a result of socialisation and consists of all the instructions, morals and values that are repeatedly reinforced when growing up. It consists of an internalisation of all the values of right and wrong we have been socialised to believe in, it is our conscience and represents a view of our ideal self. The main role of the superego is to subdue the activity of the id. The ego tries to balance the id and the superego. It is the rational part of the mind. Different behaviours can be understood by trying to infer which part of the psyche is dominant at any time. For example, a person who is submissive, guilty and always wanting to please others may have a very strong superego. A person who is impulsive, careless of other people’s feelings and does not care about the consequences of their actions will have a very strong id. A person who can be submissive but assertive when need be, who is able to think about other peoples needs but value their own can probably balance the id and superego. Eric Erikson was a psychologist who agreed with much of Freuds theory that we developed through a series of stages. Although, he believed these continued throughout our lifetime and were essentially social in nature. He believed that Freud put too much emphasis on desire and not enough on our need to be accepted by society and lead a meaningful life. Erikson suggested that we move through a series of psychosocial crises with a different social focus at each stage. The Humanistic perspective: Humanistic psychology looks at human experience from the viewpoint of an individual, it focuses on the idea of free will and that we are all capable of making our own choices. Maslow is an American psychologist who believed that we are all seeking to be the best we can both, spiritually, physically, emotionally and intellectually. He called this self-actualisation. He made a theory called the hierarchy of needs, which explains that every person requires certain basic needs to be met before they can reach the next level. Maslow believed that until our basic needs are met, we will focus on getting them met and not be able to progress further. When we are comfortable physically, we focus on our emotional needs such as self-esteem. When these needs are met we strive to self-actualise. Carl rogers was a psychologist who was interested in the concept of self. Self-concept refers to the way we view ourselves, this is physically and biologically, attributes such as being male or female, blonde or brunette, tall or short, as well as personality traits such as being kind, humble, assertive or hard-working. The self-concept is formed from an early age and children internalise other people’s judgements of them, which may become a part of their self-concept. Internalise is the way we take in information from the outside world and build into our sense of self. It then becomes part of our feelings, thoughts and beliefs about ourselves. If a child is told they’re silly, naughty and will come to no good, part of their self-aspect will contain these aspects. On the other hand, if a child is praised and encouraged to succeed, they will have positive self-concept. The cognitive/information processing perspective: Jean piaget was a Swiss psychologist who initially worked on measuring intelligence. He noticed that children on the same ages make the same mistakes in logic, no matter how bright they were. He came to the conclusion that cognition develops through a series of stages, each new stage building on the previous one. Birth to 1 Â ½ or 2 years ‘the sensorimotor stage’ – Learning to use senses and muscles – thinking without language. Babies are born with the ability to sense objects, they are also born with a range of reflexes such as the sucking reflex to enable them to feed. These reflexes lead to ‘motor actions’ controlling body muscles. The sensorimotor stage is a stage when thinking is limited to sensing objects and performing motor actions. Piaget believed that a baby would not have a working system for remembering and thinking about the world until they were about 18 months old. 2-7 years ‘the pre-operational stage’ – Pre-logical thinking in language but without understanding logic. Piaget believed that during this stage, children could not think in a logical way. Children can use words to communicate but cannot understand logical implications involved in language. Pre-operational children cannot properly understand how ideas like number, mass and volume really work. 7-11 years ‘the concrete operational stage’ – A stage where logical thinking is limited to practical situations. Children in the concrete operations stage can think logically provided the issues are concrete. In the concrete operational stage children may be able to understand simple logical puzzles. 11+ years ‘the formal operational stage’ – Thinking using logic and abstract thought processes – adult thinking. With formal logic, an adult can solve complex problems. This stage allows adolescents and adults to use abstract concepts to gain understanding of the world. Adults can think scientifically and think through complicated ideas in our head without having to see the concrete picture. George Kelly developed a psychological theory called the psychology of personal constructs. He saw the individual as a scientist, making predictions about the future, testing them and revising them according to new evidence. A construct is a way of construing reality and the environment. Kelly believed that we do not have to be constrained by our past history but can seek out new, alternative, more positive meanings. The biological perspective: Maturational theory – this theory holds that the effects of the environment are minimal. A child is born with a set of genetic instructions that are passed down from their parents. Their cognitive, physical and other developmental processes merely unfold over time, rather than being dependent on the environment to mature. It is a theory which states that development is due to nature not nurture. Arnold Gesell believed that development occurred according to a sequence of developmental processes. Development in the womb has a fixed set of stages; the heart begins to form first, along with a nervous system. Bones and muscles develop next and over time the organism develops into a fully functioning human being. As the child develops from birth, its genes allow it to develop gradually into the person they’re meant to be. Genes can affect behaviour in many ways. Many diseases such as Cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease are passed on through parents genes. Diseases such as these are genetically determined, regardless of environmental factors. Disorders that are not genetically determined, but where an individual’s genes may leave them with a vulnerability to developing the disorder are very common. The autonomic nervous system produces its effects through activation of nerve fibres throughout the nervous system, brain and body or by stimulating the release of hormones from endocrine glands. Hormones are biochemical substances that are release into the bloodstream and have a profound effect on target organs and behaviour. They are present in very small quantities and individual molecules have a very short life, so their effects quickly disappear if they are secreted continiously. There are a large number of hormones, such as, melatonin which acts on the brainstem sleep mechanisms to help synchronise the phases of sleep and activity. Testosterone, which may influence aggressiveness, and oxytocin which stimulates milk production and female orgasms.